ALEXANDER BERKMAN (1870-1936)

The Gilded Age saw a period in the US when much of the wealth was in the hands of a few people. Beneath this thin "layer of gold" there was a layer of suffering. The factories of rich industrialists were filled with overworked, underpaid workers. Across the nation workers joined Unions and began to go on strike! Collective bargaining failed and violence broke out between strikers and scabs hired by bosses to break the strike. During the Homestead Strike of 1892 steel workers were attacked by "detectives" hired by Henry Clay Frick who co-owned the factory with Andrew Carnegie. During the strike young Alex, inspired by the Anarchist Movement, decided the best way to win the strike would be to kill Frick. Alex walked into his office and shot Frick four times but Frick survived! This is a picture of Alex at 22 the same year he attempted the murder of the robber baron. He was caught, sent to prison for 14 years, and released in 1906 (the same year Upton Sinclair published The Jungle). Soon after he was deported to Europe where he lived the rest of his life trying to fight for workers rights.

QUESTION:

Alex's mentor thought that he had gone too far in trying to kill Frick. He thought it would make the public feel sorry for robber barons. Why did Alex believe the solution had to be so extreme as to commit murder? Is that the best solution?

ANDREW CARNEGIE (1835-1919)

Andrew was an immigrant from Scotland in 1848 - the year when the Mexican-American War ended. This first picture shows him at 16 (with his kid brother on the left) when he got a job that would be the beginning of his rise to one of the richest men in the world. He worked as a messenger for a telegraph company. By the time of the Civil War he was in his late 20s and was already getting rich by investing his earnings into railroad companies.

We see Andy here at 43 (1878) just before he would get really rich entering a new industry in what would be known as the Gilded Age. He took all this money and created the Carnegie Steel Co. one of many companies that were producing steel in the US. He was able to cut out his competitors by buying all related companies that were needed to create steel and was able to sell his product at a lower price. Underneath this "layer of gold" there would be strong unrest by the workers of his steel plants. During the Homestead Strike of 1892 union workers were killed and beaten by hired agents of his company.

We see Andy here at 78 years old (1913) by the time he had retired. Carnegie had reached a wealth that was rivaled only by John Rockefeller. He became a philanthropist, donating money to charities and universities. Carnegie Hall in here in New York and Carnegie Mellon University in Pennsylvania both bear his name.


QUESTION:

In these pictures we saw examples of what Andrew looked like in different stages in his life. Why is it that the last picture is the more recognizable image of Carnegie? Why is this image of Carnegie as a philanthropist promoted over the others?

JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER (1839-1937)

By the time he was 31 John had started up the Standard Oil Company of Ohio that refined oil. He wasn't the only oil refiner in Ohio but because of secret deals with the railroad companies, John was able to sell his oil at a reduced rate. This strategy made Standard Oil rich but John took his business acumen a step further. He began buying out competing refineries in the state. Eventually Standard Oil began to monopolize the oil industry when the Standard Oil Trust was created in 1882 (the same year Jesse James was killed). This picture shows a seemingly happy Johnny Rock in 1885 at 55 years old. In 1911 the Supreme Court declared Standard Oil illegal because of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. At its height the company controlled 91% of all oil produced in the US. The companies of Chevron, Exxon, Mobil, Conoco, and Amoco were formed from this fallout. Though Standard Oil was no more, Johnny owned majority stock in all the new companies. This wealth turned him into a major philanthropist, donating much of his money to charities. He is the top richest person to have ever lived while Bill Gates is 20th on that same list!

QUESTION:

At the time when Rockefeller was making his money he was considered the greatest "industrialist" to his peers. But what of his workers? What word would they use to describe Rockefeller and why?

WILLIAM H. BONNEY (1859-1881)

The perfect example of the western outlaw, “Billy the Kid” was an adventurous teenager in the Southwest Territories in New Mexico. After losing his mother to tuberculosis at 13, Billy got into trouble with his gang looking for food and a way to make a living. Billy was a “gunhand” and was known to have murdered 21 men through his skill with his pistol and rifle. He despised rich men and their oppression of poor farmers and other working-class people. Because of this attitude he has been labeled as a hero that embodied the ideas of the Populist movement. He was fluent in Spanish and loved the culture and food of Mexico. While visiting his Mexican girlfriend The Kid was gunned down by Sheriff Pat Garret. His last words were ¿Quien Es? meaning "Who's There?" as he was shot in the dark.

QUESTION:

Why would a teen aged outlaw like Billy be turned into a hero by the Populist movement? What does the idea of a "Robin Hood" have to do with Populism and their goals for farmers and other poor workers?

JESSE JAMES (1847-1882)

As a teenager in Missouri, Jesse joined the Confederate army under the command of William C. Quantrill. As a member of “Quantrill’s Raiders” Jesse engaged in guerrilla tactics that caused heavy causalities of the Union forces. The first picture is during this time when he was around 16 (1863). The period of time after the Civil War saw the rise of the “outlaw” of the Wild West. Many of these men were unemployed and dissatisfied with daily life.

As a war veteran during Reconstruction, Jesse began his criminal career in order to support his mother and family in a new South overrun by carpetbaggers and scalawags. The second photo is what he looked like at the beginning of his outlaw days. He killed over 17 men and played part in many major bank and train robberies. Jesse considered himself a loyal southerner until his assassination by a member of his own gang.

QUESTION:

What effect did the Civil War have on the young people that fought in the war? Even though it officially ended in 1865 why did the war "continue" for many years after in the new period of the "Wild West"?

NATHAN BEDFORD FORREST (1821-1877)

To many loyal Southerners the Civil War was seen as the war of Northern aggression. When it began Nathan was already a millionaire having been born poor but getting rich in the slave business. He left his plantation and enlisted in the Confederate Army. He was the South's best strategist, capturing and killing unarmed Union soldiers (both Black and White) in the Battle of Fort Pillow which took place one year after this picture was taken (1863). Although Nathan was considered a military genius, like most CSA veterans, he found himself angered by the changes of Reconstruction in the South. He is considered to be a founding member and the original “Grand Wizard” of the mysterious Ku Klux Klan in 1867. The original purpose of the clan was to protect loyal white (and Black) Southerners from the greed (real and imagined) of the Northern carpetbaggers. He later ordered the group to disband after they became increasingly violent with their terrorist activities. Ironically he was known to be a supporter of Civil Rights for Blacks is his later life.

QUESTION:

The more I researched this guy the more mystery I uncovered. Some say he really never was that involved with the Klan and that they originally were for self-defense. Others say that he lied about not being involved so he could be in charge in secret! Um, what do you think he was - racist or loyal Southerner?

WILLIAM HARVEY CARNEY (1840-1908)

By using the Underground Railroad, William was able to escape slavery and flee to Massachusetts. It was there that he volunteered for the 54th Regiment under the command of Robert Shaw. He fought in the Battle of Fort Wagner where almost half the group suffered casualties. During the battle William picked up the regimental flag and saved it from being captured all the while under attack from Confederate forces. For this act of bravery he was awarded the Medal of Honor – the first Black person to ever receive the award.

QUESTION:

William and the rest of the men of the 54th were runaway slaves or, at the least, poor Blacks. Why was it so important for William to risk his life for an army that wouldn't even let him fight alongside white soldiers? Why was he proud to represent the US army?

ROBERT GOULD SHAW (1837-1863)

Robert was born into a family of wealthy abolitionists in the greatest town in the United States, the City of Boston. After seeing action in the Battle of Antietam he was promoted to command the first all Black army unit – the 54th Regiment of the US army. Noticing the racist attitudes of the Union army he sympathized with his soldiers and was inspired by them. He was killed in the Battle of Fort Wagner after trying to lead a rally against the Confederate troops. Shaw was buried with his men, which his parents considered to be an honor.

QUESTION:

There are MANY wealthy families in the history of the US that did not sacrifice ANY of their members in defense of the country. (Think all the way back to Jamestown and the Revolutionary War). Why is it that Robert and his family were dedicated to the abolition of slavery to the point that he died with his Black soldiers for it?

FREDERICK DOUGLASS (1818-1895)

Douglass was a runaway slave in the period before the Civil War. Once he found his way North, Douglass began to be an active member in the abolitionist movement. His eloquent speeches such as “The Meaning of the Fourth of July for the Negro” questioned the idea of “freedom” in a country that allowed slavery. The first picture is three years after that speech (1855) in which we see Fred in a youthful manner.

When the Civil War broke out Douglass was asked by the governor of Massachusetts to help recruit volunteers for first all Black group of soldiers. Two of his sons enlisted under the command of Colonel Robert Shaw. During Reconstruction Fred continued to speak against the injustices suffered by ex-slaves in the form of Black Codes. The second photo (1879) is the more recognizable image of Douglass. By this time slavery had long been abolished and Douglass widened his scope to include other social issues.

In the last shot (1885) we see him with his second wife Helen Pitts (far right) and her sister. Helen was a feminist and met Douglass when he was a part of the
Women’s Suffrage movement. She was twenty years younger and white, and some of her family disapproved of the marriage. The feminist Elizabeth Cady Stanton, friends of the couple, defended the marriage.

QUESTION:

When people talk about Frederick they usually limit the conversation to his abolitionist activity. As you just read he was involved with many movements throughout his life. What kind of example does this set for people that are trying to help change the world in small steps?

DRED SCOTT (1799-1858)

Like many descendants of Africans in the US, Dred was born into slavery. Thinking that the US was a country that had “Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness” Dred sued his master in order to be set free. After a series of trials, his lawsuit appeared before the Supreme Court, the highest court in the country. In the case of Scott v. Sandford Dred’s freedom was…DENIED! The court ruled that he was not a person but property and therefore not a citizen of the United States as stated by the Declaration of Independence of Thomas Jefferson. This led many people to more increased tensions that would turn into a Civil War. In this photo taken in 1857 we see Dred a few months before he was finally granted freedom and then suddenly died from tuberculosis.

QUESTION:

Did you think that Dred had any idea that his case was going to become part of national history? Why did he do it? What message did the Supreme Court send to all abolitionists and slaves when it decided Dred's case?

JOHN BROWN (1800-1859)

The road to the Civil War was long and began to divide the nation between Americans from the North and South. A series of compromising laws did little to abate the tensions between the regions. As a minister and abolitionist, Brown believed in an aggressive ends to slavery. After the Kansas-Nebraska Act he went into Kansas to ensure that abolitionists had proper representation in the territory. This is what he looked like in 1856 around the time he murdered 5 white people that were pro-slavery in what began the summer of “Bleeding Kansas.” He would later go on to raid the armory in Harpers Ferry, Virginia hoping to capture weapons to begin a national slave revolt. He was captured and hanged by the US government in order to set an example.

QUESTION:

Did you know that John Wilkes Boothe, the guy who killed Abe Lincoln, was at the execution of John Brown? Why did his murder get both Northerners and Southerns angry enough to start thinking about Civil War?

TATANKA IYOTAKA (1831-1890)

"Sitting Bull" was considered a holy man by the Lakota Nation but this chief was a major obstacle to Manifest Destiny and Indian Removal. As pioneers and settlers began to move West they treaded upon traditional hunting grounds of the Lakota people. Soon, the US Army began to exercise violent raids into Lakota territory. He was the first Native to win a major battle against the US Army at the Battle of Little Bighorn against General George Custer. This victory, however, was short lived and Tatanka was forced to relocated to the Standing Rock reservation (South Dakota) by the time this picture was taken in 1881. When the Dawes Act was passed (1887) Natives were again promised land in the form of reservations and farms but Tatanka knew better. In a public speech welcoming the President to the West, Tatanka said in his native Lakota language, "I hate all white people. You are thieves and liars. You have taken away our land and made us outcasts." Ironically he was later killed by Lakotas in the Indian Police on his reservation while defending the right to put on the “Ghost Dance” which had been outlawed by the US government.

QUESTION:

After all the treaties and fighting with the White man, in the end, Tatanka was killed by members of his own tribe! Why is this somehow "fitting"? Why does it show about the future of Native Americans in the US and how they are today?

ZACHARY TAYLOR (1784-1850)

Taylor made his name as a career military man. He distinguished himself in battle during the War of 1812. Later, he made himself another reputation killing Natives fighting in the Black Hawk and Seminole Wars. As general, Zachary was responsible for instigating a fight between US Army forces and Mexican soldiers after a border dispute in Texas. This began the Mexican-American War which was eventually won by the US giving the country the South West territory as part of the idea of Manifest Destiny. His tactics during this war earned him the Medal of Honor, pictured here in 1847, and gave him enough popularity that he later became the 12th President of the US.

QUESTION:

What does it say about Americans of the mid-1800s that they elected a president that was a war hero? What was important for the country at this time?

JUAN CORTINA (1824-1892)

When the United States won new lands after the Mexican-American War many Mexicans were suddenly considered “foreigners” in lands they had been living on for hundreds of years. In Texas, whites revoked deeds to land that had always been Mexican owned because it was now part of the US. Juan was a wealthy landowner that did not passively accept the anti-Mexican, racist attitudes in Texas. He killed a white man that was beating up on one of his workers and then later freed more from prisons. Although this made him a criminal in the state, he survived and would later serve as a leader in the Union army for the Civil War. In this photo (1870) he had was in good standing with carpetbaggers that were buying up land in Texas during Reconstruction.

QUESTION:

I actually didn't know about Juanito until I started researching Manifest Destiny. He's actually the first "Latino" that fits into US History that I can think of. He actually made a big speech that warned all white Texans to back off or he would kill them for being racist. Why do you think that people like Juan are not generally well known in US history?

ANDREW JACKSON (1767-1845)

For many, a career in the US military was a gateway to fame, fortune, and glory. Although he owned slaves, land, and real estate, Jackson would become popular for his work as a soldier and general. He was a proud “Indian Killer” leading raids with his troops that killed Native warriors, women, and children hoping to clear the land for American settlers. His tactics led to the Florida Purchase when Spain sold the territory to the US in 1819. As the 7th President he continued his anti-Native policies by signing the Indian Removal Act (1830) which led to the deaths of 4,000 Cherokees in the “Trail of Tears.”

Andy retired to his plantation in Tennessee after serving two terms as president. He has the distinction of being the first US president to be photographed. This second image is an actual photograph of him shortly before his death in 1845.



QUESTION:

How important is the idea of "image" for people in power? How do these images differ from each other. What impressions do you get from this man based on these pictures?

THOMAS JEFFERSON (1743-1826)

Credited as author of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson was a wealthy Southerner that believed in the economic opportunity of the United States. He believed that government should be for a wealthy, educated upper-class to control the uneducated lower-class. He was even a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses (the law making group) that traced its origins back to Jamestown. Tommy made the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 which doubled the size of the nation overnight. This event was a precursor for the idea of “Manifest Destiny.” During this time Jefferson had an open sexual relationship with Sally Hemings, one of his slaves, much to the chagrin of his wife. This portrait was taken in 1800 while he was serving as the 3rd President of the US.

QUESTION:

The Declaration of Independence is highly praised for its message of equality and democracy. What message does it send that Jefferson was a slave owner and did not do any actual fighting in the Revolutionary War?

DANIEL SHAYS (1747-1825)

After serving as a soldier in the Continental Army, Daniel Shays returned to his New England farm to find himself in great amount of debt. Like many veterans, the Revolutionary War provided post traumatic stress disorder but no money. When he was unable to pay taxes on his land, the local Massachusetts government attempted to imprison Daniel and other veterans. Soon, under his command, 800 veterans and farmers marched against the local government militia (soldiers). Daniel and his group were overpowered and captured in 1787 when this etching of him was made. After losing “Shays Rebellion” Daniel was condemned to death but later spared. He died poor and unknown in New England.

QUESTION:

What message was the government sending by mistreating veterans that were too poor to pay their debts. Why were they not given more aid for sacrificing their lives in the Revolutionary War? Has the treatment of veterans improved since then (Vietnam, Iraq, etc.)?

PETER STUYVESANT (1612-1672)

When the Dutch began the colony of New Amsterdam it was made for the purpose of creating a profit. Soon, the colony was in chaos. Peter came in and began to set a strict order despite the fact that he had an actual peg-leg after losing his leg in a naval battle. He banned drinking on Sundays, knife-fighting in public, and sexual relations with Native Americans. His system of rules worked. By the time this portrait was created in 1660 New Amsterdam was an attractive, bustling, and profitable colony. The English took notice and gained control of the colony renaming in New York in 1664. Peter retired to his bouwerie (Dutch for farm) in Greenwich Village soon after.

QUESTION:

Many of the Dutch influences can still be sees/heard today in New York City. What streets or locations have to do with Stuyvesant or New Amsterdam?

JOHN SMITH (1580-1631)

Among the first English colonists to the New World, John Smith was the only trained soldier with military experience. Initially he arrived to the shores of Virginia in chains for his attempt at inciting a mutiny. He is credited with helping the Jamestown colonists survive through the first winter and establishing relations with the Native Powhatans. In the end, Jamestown grew and began to attack and kill the native settlements after discovering tobacco and a need for farmland. His relationship with Pocahontas is the subject of many historical ideas of romance and adventure.

QUESTION:

How do you think that Smith and Pocahontas communicated with each other? Why would she still be with Smith even though she knew that he was in charge of killing people from her tribe?

POCAHONTAS (1595-1617)

Daughter of the chief of the Powhatan tribe, Pocahontas was among the first Native Americans to encounter the “immigrants” from England in what is now Virginia. She was believed to have saved John Smith’s life from a tribal execution. She attempted to lay good relations between the colonists and her people, aiding Jamestown during the “Starving Time” by providing much needed food. She later adopted a European lifestyle, married John Rolfe and visited England where this portrait was commissioned in 1616. She died several months later from smallpox at 22.

QUESTION:

Why do you think that Pocahontas is always depicted in her Native clothes and not in European fashion as in this painting? What may have been here feelings about wearing these clothes and being in England?